What is currently being done

• Offline books and printed learning resources
  • E.g., Reading Statistics and Research by Schuyler W. Huck
    • Pros:
      • Detailed, comprehensive, authoritative
    • Cons:
      • Usually generic and not context-sensitive
      • Does not provide interactive exploration, testing and comparing of different scenarios

• Online learning resources (articles, courses)
  • E.g. The Journal of Statistics Education (http://www.amstat.org/publications/jse/jse_computing_archive.html )
    • Pros:
      • Insightful, interactive
    • Cons:
      • Uneven coverage, inflexible (canned, non-context-sensitive)
      • Eclectic collection

• Other web resources (applets, simulations)
  • E.g. UCLA statistical computing department (http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/)
    • Pros:
      • Authoritative, interactive
    • Cons:
      • Uneven coverage of topics; not context sensitive
      • Inflexible (canned) and eclectic collection

• Engage a SME or peer learner
  • Either by formally enrolling in classes, or informally approaching them
    • Pros:
      • Potentially very interactive, personalized, and context-sensitive
    • Cons:
      • Quality may vary depending on the SMEs, learners, and the learning environment (e.g. class size, allotted time, level of knowledge)
      • May be expensive in terms of time and money

  Learning Theory

  Approach

  The solution integrates the following learning frameworks and design best practices for a high learning impact.

  Exercise and refine "perceptual differentiation" (Gibson, 1969)

  Perceptual learning is relied on when learning Science (e.g. physics, chemistry) or Math, and visualization and visual manipulation can develop and sharpen capabilities like differentiation and accuracy, which are fundamental skills. Higher level knowledge and skills often build on this foundation. One of the central concepts of perceptual learning and development is that "there are potential variables of stimuli which are not differentiated within the mass of impinging stimulation, but which may be, given the proper conditions of exposure and practice".
  Inspiration for design features:
  using visualization and visual manipulation to present, examine, and explore both gross and subtle differences in pertinent aspects of the concepts taught/learned, can provide the means and opportunities for exposure to and practice of perceptual differentiation, leading to a deeper understanding of the subject domain and its central concepts.

  Reduce "cognitive gulfs" (Norman, 1988)

  Norman is talking about 2 "gulfs": the "gulf of execution" and the "gulf of evaluation". The gulf of execution, as applied to learning is the gap between a user's learning goal and need for action, and the means to execute that goal. Visualization and manipulation can help reduce this gap by rendering concepts visually, providing examples, presenting opportunities for exercises and manipulation, and thus removing misconceptions, enabling the "seeing of the unseen", and eliminating a high cognitive load that distracts the user from the learning goal. The gulf of evaluation is the counterpart of the gulf of execution, and is the degree to which the learning materials, artifacts, and tools provide representations that can be directly perceived and interpreted in terms of the expectations and learning goals of the user.
  Inspiration for design features:
  visualization and visual manipulation can help bridge the gaps by providing multiple ways of presenting, translating, and transforming concepts, and information into forms more "usable/consumable" by users, and also highlighting or making visible the various "affordances" that match the learner's needs/goals.

  Enable "guided noticing" (Pea, 2006)

  The claim is that a learning cycle of Looking-Noticing-Commenting (LNC) is very common in collaborative learning and it is "generative and recursive in nature". Visualization and manipulation, as well as annotating, commenting and highlighting can enable and support this cycle.
  Inspiration for design features:
  by providing ways for learners/peers and SMEs/teachers/mentors/experts to direct attention, point out, and highlight aspects of the material, looking and noticing is promoted and encouraged. Allowing users to comment and exchange ideas about the noticed aspects promotes creativity, and generates learning.

  Develop "professional vision" (Goodwin, 1994)

  Goodwin provides multiple examples of experts/professionals teaching novices to "see like experts" by showing, highlighting, pointing, describing, and interpreting phenomena, thus helping novices to start paying attention to "important details", and develop perceptual differentiation and "expert vision".
  Inspiration for design features:
  using multiple tools to point characteristic features or aspects of the concepts or material covered, including annotations and highlighting, can mimic experts elaborating and interpreting what is seen, as well as virtually pointing, showing and directing attention.

  Design Best Practices

  The approach integrates some well-known design best practice to optimize the fit between learner and solution.

  Human Centered

  Graphical Excellence (Tufte, 1997)
  "Excellence in statistical graphics consists of complex ideas communicated with clarity, precision, and efficiency. Graphical displays should: Show the data, induce the viewer to think about substance... avoid distorting what the data have to say, ... encourage the eye to compare different pieces of data, ... be closely integrated with the statistical and verbal descriptions of a data set."

  Generative Techniques

  To promote truly innovative ideas, the approach included a variety of generative techniques including brainstorming, sketching, and storyboarding.

  Rapid Prototyping

  In order to test and select ideas resulting from the generative techniques above, a series of paper prototypes and low-fidelity mock-ups had been used, leading to the solution actually being implemented using web technologies. The web-based solution had evolved through iterations based on testing and feedback.

  Literature Review

  a. Exercise and refine "perceptual differentiation" - Gibson, E. J. (1969). Principles of Perceptual Learning and Development. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York.

  i. Perceptual learning is relied on in learning science (e.g. physics, chemistry) and visualization and visual manipulation can influence aspects like differentiation, and accuracy, which are fundamental skills. Higher level knowledge and skills often build on this foundation. One of the claims or concepts of perceptual learning and development is that "there are potential variables of stimuli which are not differentiated within the mass of impinging stimulation, but which may be, given the proper conditions of exposure and practice".

  ii. Design features: using visualization and visual manipulation to present, examine, and explore both gross and subtle differences in pertinent aspects of the concepts taught/learned, can provide the means and opportunities for exposure to and practice of perceptual differentiation.

  b. Reduce "cognitive gulfs" - Norman, D. A. (1988): The Design of Everyday Things. New York, Doubleday.

  i. Norman is talking about 2 "gulfs": the "gulf of execution" and the "gulf of evaluation". My interpretation of the gulf of execution, as applied to learning: this is the gap between a user's learning goal and need for action and the means to execute that goal. Visualization and manipulation can help reduce this gap by clarifying concepts, providing examples, presenting opportunities for exercises and manipulation, and thus removing misconceptions, enabling the "seeing of the unseen", and eliminating a high cognitive load that distract the user from the learning goal. The gulf of evaluation is the counterpart of the gulf of execution, and is the degree to which the learning materials, artifacts, and tools provide representations that can be directly perceived and interpreted in terms of the expectations and learning goals of the user.

  ii. Design features: visualization and visual manipulation can help bridge the gaps by providing multiple ways of visualizing, translating, and transforming concepts, and information into forms more "usable/consumable" by users, and also highlight or make visible the various "affordances" that match the learner's needs/goals.

  c. Develop "professional vision" - Goodwin, C. (1994) Professional Vision. American Anthropologist, Vol. 96, No. 3. (1994), pp. 606-633.

  i. Goodwin provides multiple examples of experts/professionals teaching novices to "see like experts" by showing, highlighting, pointing, describing, and interpreting phenomena, thus helping novices to start paying attention to "important details", and develop perceptual differentiation (a-la Gibson).

  ii. Design features: using visualization and visual manipulation to point characteristic features or aspects of the concepts or material taught/learned, including annotations and highlighting, can mimic experts virtually pointing, showing and directing attention.

  d. Develop "early knowledge" - Schwartz, D., & Martin, T. (2004). Inventing to prepare for future learning: The hidden efficiency of encouraging original student production in statistics instruction. Cognition and Instruction, 22, 129-184.

  i. The authors show in experiments that "inventive production" can support the development of knowledge in 2 ways: it can help them "let go of old interpretations" and it can also help them develop new ones.

  ii. Design features: by visually presenting the learner with contrasting cases and cases highlighting highly relevant, and differentiating aspects or features, learners can test/examine, and if appropriate, let go of misconceptions, and also learn new interpretations and concepts. Providing opportunities for visual manipulation of salient and differentiating features, can introduce immediate feedback as to the appropriateness of the learner's interpretations and understanding.

  e. Enable "guided noticing" - Pea, R. Video-as-Data and Digital Video Manipulation Techniques for Transforming Learning Sciences Research, Education, and Other Cultural Practices, The Int'l Handbook of Virtual Learning Environments, J. Weiss, J. Nolan, J. Hunsinger, and P.Trifonas, eds., pp. 1321-1393, Springer, 2006.

  i. The author claims that a learning cycle of Looking-Noticing-Commenting (LNC) is very common in collaborative learning and it is generative and recursive in nature. Visualization and manipulation, as well as annotation, commenting and highlighting can enable this cycle.

  ii. Design features: by providing ways for learners and teachers/mentors/experts to direct attention, point out, and highlight aspects of the material, looking and noticing is promoted and encouraged. Allowing users to comment and exchange ideas about the noticed aspects promotes creativity, and generates learning.

  References

  • Card, S.K., Mackinlay, J.D., Shneiderman, B. (1999). Readings in Information Visualization: Using Vision to Think. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
  • Gibson, E. J. (1969). Principles of Perceptual Learning and Development. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York.
  • Goodwin, C. (1994) Professional Vision. American Anthropologist, Vol. 96, No. 3. (1994), pp. 606-633.
  • Norman, D. A. (1988): The Design of Everyday Things. Doubleday, New York.
  • Pea, R. (2006). Video-as-Data and Digital Video Manipulation Techniques for Transforming Learning Sciences Research, Education, and Other Cultural Practices, The Int'l Handbook of Virtual Learning Environments, J. Weiss, J. Nolan, J. Hunsinger, and P.Trifonas, eds., pp. 1321-1393, Springer, 2006.
  • Tufte, R. E. (1997). The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Graphics Press. Cheshire, Connecticut. Wainer, H. (2005). Graphic Discovery. Princeton University Press. Princeton, New Jersey.